Taxonomía de los hongos: un rompecabezas al que le faltan muchas piezas

Los hongos son organismos polifacéticos presentes en casi todos los ecosistemas de la tierra, donde establecen diversos tipos de simbiosis con otros seres vivos. A pesar de ser reconocidos por los humanos desde la antigüedad -y de la cantidad de trabajos que han profundizado sobre su biología y ecología-, aún falta mucho por conocer sobre estos organismos. Algunos de los criterios que clásicamente se han utilizado para su estudio, hoy resultan limitados y hasta cierto punto permiten un agrupamiento de los aislamientos según algunas características, pero generan confusión en su clasificación y, más aún, cuando se pretende comprender sus relaciones genealógicas. Los caracteres fenotípicos no son suficientes para identificar una especie de hongos y, menos aún, para construir una filogenia amplia o de un grupo particular. Hay grandes vacíos que hacen que los árboles generados sean inestables y fácilmente debatidos. Para los profesionales de la salud, parece que la identificación de los hongos hasta niveles inferiores como género y especie es suficiente para elegir el tratamiento más adecuado para su control, comprender la epidemiología de los cuadros clínicos asociados y reconocer los brotes y los factores determinantes de la resistencia a los antimicrobianos. No obstante, la ubicación taxonómica dentro del reino permitiría establecer relaciones filogenéticas entre los taxones fúngicos, facilitando la comprensión de su biología, su distribución en la naturaleza y la evolución de su potencial patogénico. Los avances de las técnicas de biología molecular y las ciencias de la computación en los últimos 30 años han permitido cambios importantes dirigidos a establecer los criterios para definir una especie fúngica y alcanzar una construcción filogenética más o menos estable. Sin embargo, el camino por recorrer aún es largo, y supone un trabajo mancomunado de la comunidad científica a nivel global y el apoyo a la investigación básica.

Fungi are multifaceted organisms found in almost all ecosystems on Earth, where they establish various types of symbiosis with other living beings. Despite being recognized by humans since ancient times, and the high number of works delving into their biology and ecology, much is still unknown about these organisms. Some criteria classically used for their study are nowadays limited, generating confusion in categorizing them, and even more, when trying to understand their genealogical relationships. To identify species within Fungi, phenotypic characters to date are not sufficient, and to construct a broad phylogeny or a phylogeny of a particular group, there are still gaps affecting the generated trees, making them unstable and easily debated. For health professionals, fungal identification at lower levels such as genus and species, is enough to select the most appropriate therapy for their control, understand the epidemiology of clinical pictures associated, and recognize outbreaks and antimicrobial resistance. However, the taxonomic location within the kingdom, information with apparently little relevance, can allow phylogenetic relationships to be established between fungal taxa, facilitating the understanding of their biology, distribution in nature, and pathogenic potential evolution. Advances in molecular biology and computer science techniques from the last 30 years have led to crucial changes aiming to establish the criteria to define a fungal species, allowing us to reach a kind of stable phylogenetic construction. However, there is still a long way to go, and it requires the joint work of the scientific community at a global level and support for basic research.

Control de la ventilación y regulación del estado ácido-base del pez al hombre / Control of ventilation and regulation of acid-base status from fish to man

RESUMEN Este artículo analiza ciertos aspectos evolutivos en el intercambio gaseoso, el desa rrollo pulmonar, la bomba respiratoria, el estado ácido-base y el control de la ventila ción en relación con un evento trascendente: el pasaje de la vida acuática a la terres tre. Su estudio puede permitir comprender ciertos aspectos con los que lidiamos en la práctica clínica: ¿Por qué las personas con debilidad muscular respiratoria extrema respiran como ranas (respiración frog)?, ¿Por qué los recién nacidos con dificultad respiratoria tienen aleteo nasal y quejido espiratorio?, ¿cómo es posible que los mús culos abdominales, típicamente espiratorios, asistan a la inspiración en casos de la parálisis diafragmática?, ¿por qué en la insuficiencia respiratoria el patrón respiratorio tiene menos variabilidad y se torna más rígido? y, por último, ¿es posible imaginar un pH neutro que no tenga el valor de 7,0, para qué sirve este conocimiento y como se deben interpretar los gases en hipotermia? La transición del agua a la tierra es una de las más importantes e inspiradoras de las grandes transiciones en la evolución de los vertebrados. Ante la sorprendente diversi dad de organismos vivos, es tentador imaginar una cantidad enorme de adaptaciones evolutivas para resolver los diferentes desafíos que cada especie tiene para la vida en la tierra. Hay desarrollos tempranos que comparten algunos factores cruciales y algunas de las redes genéticas regulatorias cercanas y lejanas están conservadas. Somos testigos de hallazgos clínicos que son el testimonio de especies que han vivido en épocas remotas y nos han legado su historia evolutiva.

ABSTRACT This article analyzes certain evolutionary aspects of gas exchange, lung development, the respiratory pump, the acid-base status and control of ventilation in relation to a significant event: the passing from aquatic to terrestrial life. By studying this, we can understand certain aspects that are present in the clinical practice: Why do people with extreme respiratory muscle weakness breathe as frogs? (frog breathing); why do newborns with breathing difficulties have nasal flaring and expiratory grunting?; how is it possible that abdominal muscles, which are typically expiratory, assist with inspira tion in cases of diaphragmatic paralysis?; why does the breathing pattern of respiratory failure has less variability and becomes more rigid? and, finally, is it possible to imagine a neutral pH that doesn't have the 7.0 value?; what's the use of this knowledge, and how should gases in hypothermia be interpreted? Water-to-land transition is one of the most important and inspiring major transitions of vertebrate evolution. Given the amazing diversity of living organisms, it is tempting to imagine an enormous amount of evolutionary adaptation processes to solve the different challenges of living on earth faced by each species. There are certain early development processes that share some crucial factors, and some of the close and distant gene regulatory networks are conserved. We are witnesses of clinical findings that serve as testimony of the species that lived in remote times and left us their evo lutionary history.

Aspectos evolutivos dos fenômenos imunopatológicos com ênfase na COVID-19 / Evolutionary aspects of immunopathological phenomena with emphasis on COVID-19

A seleção natural é o principal mecanismo da evolução das espécies, e favorece fenótipos com defesas imunes efetivas contra patógenos. Entretanto, há uma grande variação das respostas imunes entre os indivíduos da espécie humana e a ocorrência de fenômenos imunopatológicos. A infecção com o vírus da família Coronaviridae, SARS-CoV-2, responsável pela doença conhecida como COVID-19, induz a respostas imunes inflamatórias exacerbadas e à tempestade de citocinas, nos casos graves. Nesta revisão discutiremos, à luz da Evolução, esse aparente paradoxo entre as respostas imunes, e os três principais fatores que contribuem para a manutenção dos fenótipos hiperativos: o custo-benefício das respostas imunes, a coevolução e a história de vida da espécie.

Natural selection is the main mechanism by which species evolve, and it favors phenotypes associated with an effective immune defense against pathogens. However, human immune responses and the occurrence of immunopathological phenomena vary considerably from individual to individual. Infection with SARSCoV- 2, a virus of the Coronaviridae family causing the disease known as COVID-19, induces exacerbated inflammatory immune responses and cytokine storm in severe cases. In this review, we discuss, in the light of Evolution, this apparent paradox between the immune responses and the 3 main factors contributing to the maintenance of hyperactive phenotypes: the cost-effectiveness of immune responses, coevolution, and the life history of the species.

¿Es posible que nuestra generación enfrente una nueva pandemia causada por otro Coronavirus? / Is it possible that our generation will deal a new pandemic caused by another Coronavirus?

RESUMEN La actual pandemia de COVID-19 fue inducida por la emergencia de un coronavirus en un animal reservorio. De esta manera, es de gran importancia conocer como ocurre la evolución de estos agentes virales en la naturaleza. En este artículo, son presentados los principales mecanismos asociados a la evolución de los coronavirus considerando las especies de animales que actúan como reservorios o huéspedes evolutivos, los mecanismos genéticos virales arrollados en la generación de variantes virales y la contribución de las acciones humanas que puedan generar nuevos coronavirus recombinantes con potencial pandémico. Considerando los puntos discutidos en este artículo, concluimos que la generación de nuevos coronavirus podrá ser evitada con la implementación de políticas públicas que propongan acciones de salud única y así solo habrá salud humana habiendo salud ambiental y salud animal.

ABSTRACT The current COVID-19 pandemic was induced by the emergence of a coronavirus from an animal as a reservoir. Thus, it is of great importance to know how the evolution of these viral agents occurs in the nature. In this article, the main mechanisms associated with the evolution of coronaviruses were presented, indicating the animal species that act as reservoirs or evolutionary hosts, the viral genetic mechanisms involved in the generation of viral variants, the contribution of human actions to generate recombinant coronaviruses with pandemic potential. From the points discussed in the article, we conclude that the generation of new coronaviruses can be avoided with the implementation of public policies that propose health actions and thus there will only be human health if there is environmental health and animal health.

Breve historia de las lágrimas y el llanto

Las lágrimas y el llanto son fenómenos biológicos enmarcados en diferentes contextos sociales, culturales y de conocimiento a lo largo de los años. Este artículo es una revisión sobre la construcción de las concepciones alrededor de las lágrimas y el llanto. Se exploran las formulaciones en el tema desde las civilizaciones más antiguas, pasando por la discusión alrededor del origen de las lágrimas (corazón vs. cerebro), así como los hallazgos con la introducción de la disección anatómica y la experimentación fisiológica. Finalmente, se exponen las posturas evolucionistas y psicológicas del llanto para estudiar su funcionalidad en la supervivencia y su papel en las relaciones sociales. El objetivo de este es presentar, en forma sucinta, los aspectos históricos de las lágrimas y el llanto.

SUMMARY Tears and crying are biological phenomena framed in different social and cultural contexts throughout the years. This article is a review of the construction of different conceptions around tears and crying. We explore proposals on the subject from the oldest civilizations, going through the discussion around the origin of tears (heart vs. brain), and the findings with the introduction of anatomical dissection and physiological experimentation. Finally, the evolutionary and psychological positions of crying are exposed, to study its functionality in survival and its role in social relations. The aim of this article is to present, succinctly, what have been the tears and crying through the history.

Pluralismo evolutivo e o ideal de unificação da biologia / Evolutionary pluralism and the ideal of a unified biology

Resumo A evolução biológica é frequentemente considerada um eixo central e unificador da biologia. O artigo discute aspectos históricos desse ideal de unificação, bem como os seus sinais de desintegração entre os anos 1960 e 1980. Argumentamos que apesar das novas propostas de síntese do conhecimento biológico, a biologia evolutiva contemporânea é caracterizada por um pluralismo. Os principais pontos a favor do pluralismo evolutivo são discutidos, e algumas consequências dessa perspectiva são apresentadas, particularmente em relação ao ideal de unificação da biologia. Por fim, defendemos um pluralismo evolutivo crítico do ideal de unificação como um objetivo da ciência, mas ainda favorável a integrações locais.

Abstract Biological evolution is often regarded as a central and unifying axis of biology. This article discusses historical aspects of this ideal of unification, as well as signs of its disintegration from the 1960s to 1980s. We argue that despite new proposals for the synthesis of biological knowledge, contemporary evolutionary biology is characterized by pluralism. The main points in favor of evolutionary pluralism are discussed and some consequences of this perspective are presented, particularly in terms of the ideal of a unified biology. Finally, we defend an evolutionary pluralism that critiques the ideal of unification as a scientific objective, but still favors local integrations.

Proteínas salivales relacionadas con la diversidad de dietas en murciélagos tropicales / Salivary proteins related to the diversity of diets in tropical bats

La familia Phyllostomidae presenta una gran diversidad de dietas que requieren adaptaciones fisiológicas para metabolizar los diferentes alimentos que consumen. En frugívoros de la familia Pteropodidae e insectívoros de las familias Vespertilionidae y Molossidae se han reportado proteínas salivales distintivas de cada dieta. Por ello, se planteó determinar moléculas salivales asociadas con las diferentes dietas de los filostómidos. Los organismos se encontraban en ayuno al tomar la muestra, a la cual se le adicionó un buffer inhibidor de proteasas y se almacenó a -20°C hasta su uso. Las proteínas se identificaron por medio de SDS-PAGE y se evaluó si su presencia en los individuos estaba asociada con la historia evolutiva de las especies. Además, se determinó si las proteínas encontradas estarían relacionadas con la dieta del individuo. Se capturaron 15 especies con dietas nectarívora, insectívora y frugívora. Se encontró una proteína de 60kDa en filostómidos herbívoros y una de 50kDa en vespertilionidos y filostómidos con alto consumo de insectos. Además, se registró una proteína de 30kDa en todos los filostómidos y en 2 de las 3 especies de vespertilionidos. Los análisis indicaron que la presencia de las proteínas no estaría relacionada con la cercanía filogenética y que, para las proteínas de 30 y 50kDa, tampoco sería explicada por la dieta como sí ocurre con la proteína de 60kDa. Los filostómidos habrían retenido de su dieta ancestral insectívora la proteína de 30kDa y adquirido evolutivamente la de 60kDa para procesar plantas y lograr la amplia diversificación ecológica que presentan.

The Phyllostomidae family presents a great diversity of diets that require physiological adaptations to metabolize the different foods that they consume. In frugivores of the family Pteropodidae and insectivores of the families Vespertilionidae and Molossidae, distinctive salivary proteins of each diet have been reported. For this reason, it was proposed to determine salivary molecules associated with the different diets of the phylostomids. The organisms were fasting when taking the sample, to which a protease inhibitor buffer was added and it was stored at -20°C until use. The proteins were identified by means of SDS-PAGE and it was evaluated whether their presence in individuals was associated with the evolutionary history of the species. In addition, it was determined whether the proteins found would be related to the individual's diet. 15 species were caught with nectarivorous, insectivorous and frugivorous diets. A protein of 60kDa was found in herbivorous phyllostomids and a 50kDa protein in vespertilionids and phyllostomids with high insect consumption. In addition, a 30kDa protein was recorded in all phylostomids and in 2 of the 3 species of vespertilionids. The analyzes indicated that the presence of the proteins would not be related to the phylogenetic closeness and that, for the 30 and 50kDa proteins, it would not be explained by the diet as it is the case with the 60kDa protein. The phylostomids would have retained the 30kDa protein from their ancestral insectivorous diet and evolutionarily acquired the 60kDa protein to process plants and achieve the broad ecological diversification they present.

A Conceptual Analysis of Korean Elders' Yangsaeng in Nursing

PURPOSE: This study tries to analyze the concept of Yangsaeng in the Korean aged, with focus on nursing. METHODS: Rodgers'evolutionary approach was used to identify the common definitions, attributes, antecedents, and consequences of the Yangsaeng concept for the aged. Literature search was conducted at the NAL, NDSL, RISS, ProQuest, PubMed, AMED, and MEDLINE databases from 2004 to 2016, using the keywords “Yangsaeng,” “health promotion,” “health management,” “traditional oriental methods,” and “traditional oriental nursing.”Finally, 20 relevant articles were selected and thoroughly reviewed. RESULTS: The analysis shows that the model of Yangsaeng for the Korean aged is that of personal adaptive-capacity, totality, challenging, and coping resource and includes physical, social and psychological health and wellness. CONCLUSION: This work provides some implications on the development of nursing intervention related with Yangsaeng for the Korean aged, and suggests the implementation of such intervention in the practice of Yangsaeng for the Korean aged. Therefore, a better understanding of the Korean aged and Yangsaeng within the context of nursing can be achieved.

Relación entre el proceso evolutivo del ser humano y su predisposición al cáncer / Relationship between the human being evolutionary process and cancer predisposition

El cáncer se ha convertido en la primera causa de morbimortalidad en numerosos países. En las últimas décadas se ha asistido a un cambio en el paradigma conceptual de las enfermedades neoplásicas, que ahora se enfoca hacia la perspectiva ecológica-evolutiva de estas. Con el objetivo de analizar, con elementos actualizados, la relación entre el proceso evolutivo del ser humano y su predisposición al cáncer, se realizó una revisión sistemática de la literatura, a partir de tres bases de datos, Medline, Scopus, y SciELO. Se tuvieron en cuenta atributos de consistencia de los artículos revisados, se excluyeron los estudios con niveles IV y V de evidencia y los de calidad insuficiente. Las búsquedas acumuladas actuales sugieren la necesidad de ver a las diversas neoplasias desde la perspectiva de la dinámica de sistemas complejos y sus implicaciones evolutivas. El proceso evolutivo humano posee particularidades biosociales que le predisponen a sufrir tumores malignos. La postura bípeda incrementó vulnerabilidad al efecto oncogénico de las radiaciones ultravioletas. La conducta sexual incrementó el riesgo de contraer infecciones por virus oncogénicos. El paso a una predominantemente cárnica y la introducción de la cocción, se tradujo en la incorporación de agentes xenobióticos cuyo metabolismo deriva agentes carcinógenos. La postergación del envejecimiento humano devino en un mayor tiempo para el acúmulo de mutaciones. Las modificaciones en el patrón sexual y reproductivo en la mujer han influido en su predisposición al cáncer de mama. En la génesis poblacional del cáncer subyacen fundamentos biosociales vinculados al proceso evolutivo de la especie(AU)

Cancer has become the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in many countries. In recent decades there has been a change in the conceptual paradigm of neoplastic diseases, which now focuses on the ecological-evolutionary perspective of these. With the aim of analyzing, with updated elements, the relationship between the evolutionary process of the human being and his predisposition to cancer, a systematic review of the literature was made, based on three databases, Medline, Scopus, and SciELO. Consistency attributes of the reviewed articles were taken into account, studies with levels IV and V of evidence and those of insufficient quality were excluded. The current accumulated searches suggest the need to see the various neoplasms from the perspective of the dynamics of complex systems and their evolutionary implications. The human evolutionary process has biosocial peculiarities that predispose it to suffer malignant tumors. Bipedal posture increased vulnerability to the oncogenic effect of ultraviolet radiation. Sexual behavior increased the risk of contracting oncogenic virus infections. The transition to a predominantly meat and the introduction of cooking, resulted in the incorporation of xenobiotic agents whose metabolism derives carcinogens. The postponement of human aging became in a longer time for the accumulation of mutations. Modifications in the sexual and reproductive pattern in women have influenced their predisposition to breast cancer. In the population genesis of cancer underlying biosocial foundations linked to the evolutionary process of the species(AU)

Introduction of Phylodynamics for Controlling the HIV/AIDS Epidemic in Korea / 예방의학회지

As over 1000 new cases of HIV/AIDS occur in Korea annually, preventive health programs against HIV/AIDS are urgently needed. Since phylodynamic studies have been suggested as a way to understand how infectious diseases are transmitted and evolve, phylodynamic inferences can be a useful tool for HIV/AIDS research. In particular, phylodynamic models are helpful for dating the origins of an epidemic and estimating its basic reproduction number. Thus, the introduction of phylodynamics would be a highly valuable step towards controlling the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Korea.

Spotlight on Plasmodium falciparum evolutionary system in the southeastern Atlantic forest / Destaque para o sistema evolutivo de Plasmodium falciparum no sudeste da Mata Atlântica

Abstract Malaria elimination is now set to occur in Brazil until 2030. While this achievement is feasible, as it is for other endemic regions worldwide, it is important to recognize resistance of parasites and vectors against anti-malarial interventions. Resistance against drugs and insecticides can lead to discontinuities of malaria transmission, known as residual malaria transmission. Herein, we described a novel phenomenon that is occurring in a residual malaria transmission scenario in the southeastern Atlantic forest. This novel phenomenon does not belong to what is known and therefore we decided to explain it based on an evolutionary perspective. Although it shall not be viewed as a threat to public health, the phenomenon has important aspects that should be highlighted. Specifically, it represents an adaptation of P. falciparum among vectors and hosts in the southeastern Atlantic forest. Knowledge about this phenomenon could be of importance, including to the on-going malaria elimination programs.

Resumo A eliminação da malária pode ocorrer no Brasil antes de 2030. Embora seja viável no Brasil e em outras regiões endêmicas do mundo, reconhece-se a importância da resistência de parasitos e vetores às intervenções. A resistência contra drogas e inseticidas pode levar à malária residual. Aqui, descrevemos um novo fenômeno que está ocorrendo em um cenário residual de transmissão de malária no sudeste da Mata Atlântica. Esse fenômeno não faz parte do conhecimento atual e, portanto, propomos uma perspectiva evolutiva para explicá-lo. Não sugerimos uma nova ameaça à saúde pública; entretanto, ressaltam-se aspectos importantes sobre o fenômeno. Especificamente, o fenômeno representa uma adaptação de P. falciparum entre vetores e hospedeiros no sudeste da Mata Atlântica. O conhecimento sobre essa adaptação pode ser importante para os programas de eliminação da malária em andamento.

Analysis on property of meridian supramolecules by biological evolution path / 中国针灸

With human placed in the whole nature, by following the biologic evolution path, the property of channel structure for "imprinting template" in meridian andwas explored with supramolecular chemistry. In the history of biologic evolution, each molecule in "molecule society" gradually developed into various highly-ordered supramolecular bodies based on self-identification, self-assembly, self-organization, self-replicating of"imprinting template", and thereby the original biochemical system was established, and finally evolved into human. In the forming process of supramolecular bodies, the channel structure of"imprinting template" in guest supramolecular bodies would be kept by host supramolecular bodies, and communicate with the outside to exchange materials, energy, information, otherwise life phenomenon could not continue, for which it was the chemical nature of biolo-gical supramolecular bodies for body to develop meridian. Therefore, the human was a gigantic and complicated supramolecules body in biological nature, and possessed the supramolecules "imprinting template" at each stage of evolution, for which the meridians were formed. When meridians converged, acupoints appeared; when acupointsconverged,appeared. With the promotion of the blood from heart, according to"imprinting template", the guest supramolecular bodies and host meridian produced-analysis, which was the-phenomenon of guest in meridian. It presented asimage of physiology and pathology as well as action regularities of medication and acupuncture tolerance, by which current various meridian viewpoints could be explained and propose the hypothesis of meridian supramolecular bodies. The meridian and its phenomenon was decide by its "imprinting template" of supramolecular bodies and self-reaction regularities, which abided through the living nature. This was the substance for meridian biology.

Car and motorcycle deaths: an evolutionary perspective / Mortes por batida de carro e moto: uma perspectiva evolucionista

Abstract Our aim was to assess differences between men and women in the likelihood of exposure to traffic as drivers of cars and motorcycles, and in the risk of dying from a car or a motorcycle crash, in order to verify the extent to which Darwin's Sexual Selection Theory could have predicted the findings and can help to interpret them. Study population was composed of men and women aged 18 to 60 years residents in the state of Rio de Janeiro between 2004 and 2010, and in the state of Rio Grande do Sul between 2001 and 2010. We built frequency distribution tables and drew bar charts in order to check whether there were differences between the sexes and interactions of sex with age. More men exposed themselves to and died in traffic than women, especially the young. Society should have an especially vigilant attitude towards men on the wheel due to their increased innate tendency to exposure to risk. Darwin's sexual selection theory can be an important ally when postulating hypotheses and interpreting epidemiological findings aiming at improving public policies to reduce the excessive number of traffic deaths, especially in societies where machismo is strong or the stimulus to masculinity is exaggerated.

Resumo Objetivamos averiguar diferenças entre homens e mulheres na exposição ao trânsito como motorista de carro e de moto e no risco de morrer por batida desses veículos, para verificar até que ponto a teoria da seleção sexual de Darwin pode predizer os achados e ajudar a interpretá-los. A população de estudo foi composta por homens e mulheres de 18 a 60 anos residentes no Estado do Rio de Janeiro, entre 2004 e 2010, e no Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, entre 2001 e 2010. Elaboramos tabelas de frequência e gráficos de barras para verificar se havia diferenças entre os sexos e interação de sexo com idade. Homens se expuseram e morreram mais no trânsito do que mulheres, especialmente os jovens. A sociedade deveria ter uma atitude especialmente vigilante com homens ao volante devido à tendência inata deles de maior exposição ao risco. A teoria da seleção sexual de Darwin pode ser uma potente aliada na postulação de hipóteses que busquem aperfeiçoar políticas públicas para reduzir a quantidade exagerada de mortes no trânsito, especialmente em sociedades onde o machismo for forte ou o estímulo à masculinidade exagerado.

Suicidio en el mundo: ¿puede un enfoque evolutivo explicar la relación entre tasas de suicidio y variables asociadas a calidad de vida? / Suicide worldwide: can the evolutionary perspective explain the relationship between suicide rates and quality of life variables?

Introduction: Suicide is a complex phenomenon and seems to be paradoxical from an evolutionary standpoint, considering the multiple associated risk factors and the differences in suicide rates among countries. Suicide risks are usually attributed to economic hardship and low quality of life. However, some studies have shown an inverse relationship. Objective: To compare suicide rates reported for different countries to date with economic and quality of life indicators. Method: Suicide rates reported for 82 countries by the World Health Organization (WHO) were correlated with 2008 purchasing power parities (PPPs) and human development indexes (HDIs) published by the World Bank and the United Nations, respectively. Results: A positive correlation was observed between suicide rates, PPPs and HDIs (r = 0.3601 and r = 0.366, respectively p < 0.01). Conclusions: The positive correlation observed (i.e., suicide rates increased with economic and quality of life indicators) seem to be contradictory on the surface. We propose that interpreting these data from an evolutionary perspective could contribute to a deeper understanding of this phenomenon. Nevertheless, there are a myriad of factors that could be contributing to these results, thus further research is needed to understand suicide at a global scale.

Introducción: El suicidio es un fenómeno complejo y evolucionariamente en apariencia paradojal, siendo conocidos los múltiples factores de riesgo asociados y las diferencias de tasas existentes entre los países. Comúnmente se atribuye mayor riesgo a dificultades económicas y peor calidad de vida, sin embargo, algunos estudios mostrarían una tendencia inversa. Objetivo: Comparar las tasas de suicidio de distintos países publicadas hasta la fecha, con algunos indicadores económicos y de calidad de vida objetivos. Métodos: Se correlacionaron las tasas de suicidio de 82 países publicados por la Organización Mundial de la Salud, con la paridad de poder de compra (PPP) e índice de desarrollo humano (HDI) del año 2008 publicados por el Banco Mundial y las Naciones Unidas respectivamente. Resultados: Se obtuvo una correlación positiva entre tasas de suicidio con PPP e HDI (r = 0,3601 y r = 0,366 respectivamente, p < 0,01). Conclusión: La correlación positiva observada, es decir, mientras mejores indicadores económicos y de calidad de vida, habría mayores tasas de suicidio, son en apariencia contradictorios. Proponemos que la comprensión de estos datos desde una perspectiva evolucionaria podría contribuir a un mejor entendimiento de éstos. Sin embargo, son múltiples los factores que podrían estar involucrados en este resultado, por lo que es necesaria mayor investigación para poder entender de mejor manera el fenómeno del suicidio a nivel mundial.

Aplicación de la genética de poblaciones en el ámbito de la medicina / Application of population genetics in the field of medicine

Las poblaciones humanas obedecen a los mismos supuestos evolutivos que el resto de los organismos, aunque mezclados con elementos sociales y culturales que pueden promover la expresión de ciertas enfermedades en grupos étnicos específicos, causadas principalmente por la frecuente endogamia. En este trabajo se analiza el principio de Hardy-Weinberg desde un enfoque médico, social y biológico, para entender los procesos evolutivos que dan lugar a las enfermedades autosómicas recesivas. A manera de conclusión se puede señalar que la incidencia de estas enfermedades está inversamente relacionada con los niveles de la variabilidad genética en las poblaciones, variabilidad que depende de eventos de colonización, recolonización y migración, así como de convenciones sociales como el racismo, la estratificación social y la segregación.

Human populations follow the same evolutionary principles as other organisms, although mixed with social and cultural elements, which can result in a high prevalence of certain diseases within specific ethnic groups. In this work, the Hardy-Weinberg principle is analyzed from a medical, social and biological viewpoint to understand the evolutionary processes of autosomal recessive diseases. It can be concluded that the incidence of these diseases is inversely related to the levels of genetic variability within populations, which depends on colonization, recolonization and migration events, as well as on social conventions such as racism, social stratification and segregation.

Carrying on the scientific knowledge in major scientific achievements / 中华医学图书情报杂志

After the concept of carrying on the scientific knowledge was analyzed from the double properties of scientific knowledge, the main contents and methods of carrying on the scientific knowledge in major scientific achievements were stressed according to the enlightenments of biological evolution in order enrich the theories and methodologies and lay the foundation for further studying the development rules of major scientific achievements .

Study of Modern Human Evolution via Comparative Analysis with the Neanderthal Genome

Many other human species appeared in evolution in the last 6 million years that have not been able to survive to modern times and are broadly known as archaic humans, as opposed to the extant modern humans. It has always been considered fascinating to compare the modern human genome with that of archaic humans to identify modern human-specific sequence variants and figure out those that made modern humans different from their predecessors or cousin species. Neanderthals are the latest humans to become extinct, and many factors made them the best representatives of archaic humans. Even though a number of comparisons have been made sporadically between Neanderthals and modern humans, mostly following a candidate gene approach, the major breakthrough took place with the sequencing of the Neanderthal genome. The initial genome-wide comparison, based on the first draft of the Neanderthal genome, has generated some interesting inferences regarding variations in functional elements that are not shared by the two species and the debated admixture question. However, there are certain other genetic elements that were not included or included at a smaller scale in those studies, and they should be compared comprehensively to better understand the molecular make-up of modern humans and their phenotypic characteristics. Besides briefly discussing the important outcomes of the comparative analyses made so far between modern humans and Neanderthals, we propose that future comparative studies may include retrotransposons, pseudogenes, and conserved non-coding regions, all of which might have played significant roles during the evolution of modern humans.

Patamares evolutivos do pensamento humano segundo Merlin Donald / Niveles evolutivos del pensamiento humano según Merlin Donald / The evolutionary levels of human thought according to Merlin Donald

A partir de análise sinóptica da hipótese de Merlin Donald, proposta na publicação Origens do pensamento moderno, é apresentado um caso clínico que se propõe a ilustrar alguns dos conceitos desenvolvidos na obra. A metodologia de pesquisa consistiu essencialmente em levantamento bibliográfico e comparação ao caso relatado, mediante o recurso à armazenagem simbólica externa. As peculiaridades do caso clínico foram levantadas por observação participante no local de trabalho, bem como por consulta ao prontuário do paciente, salvaguardados os princípios éticos inerentes à situação, nomeadamente o princípio da confidencialidade que se mantém ao longo do trabalho. Este artigo é fundamentalmente constituído por duas partes: a primeira, na qual se abordam os patamares evolutivos propostos pelo autor e a segunda, em que, após a descrição do caso clínico, se ilustram esses patamares por meio da observação efetuada.

A partir del análisis sinóptico de la hipótesis de Merlin Donald, presentada en la publicación Orígenes del pensamiento moderno, se presenta un caso clínico que se propone a ilustrar algunos de los conceptos desarrollados en la obra. La metodología de la investigación se ha basado esencialmente en búsqueda bibliográfica sistemática y comparación al caso narrado, mediante el recurso al almacenamiento simbólico externo. Las peculiaridades del caso clínico fueron planteadas por observación participante en el lugar de trabajo, así como por consulta al prontuario del paciente, salvaguardados los principios éticos inherentes a la situación, especialmente el principio de la confidencialidad, que se mantiene a lo largo del trabajo. Este artículo está fundamentalmente conformado por dos partes: la primera, en la cual se abordan los niveles evolutivos propuestos por el autor, y la segunda, en la cual, tras la descripción del caso clínico, se ilustran esos niveles por medio de la observación llevada a cabo.

From synoptic analysis of Merlin Donald?s hypothesis, proposed in the work Origins of modern thought, a clinical case is presented in order to show some concepts developed in his work. The methodology used was essentially bibliographical literature and comparison to the reported clinical case, using external symbolic storage. The peculiarities of the clinical case were raised by participant observation in the workplace and by consulting the patient?s medical record, safeguarding the inherent ethical principles, including the principle of confidentiality, kept throughout this clinical case. This work comprises basically two parts: the first, where the author?s proposed evolutionary levels are approached, and the second that, after description of the clinical, these parameters are illustrated through undertaken observation.

Perspectiva evolucionista de los trastornos de la conducta alimentaria / Evolutionary perspective of eating disorders

Background: Evolutionary theory has contributed with physiological, psychological and behavioral explanations to the comprehension and treatment of eating disorders (ED). The aim of this review is to analyze the relationship between ED and the attachment theory and natural selection based hypotheses (famine flight, reproductive suppression and intrasexual competition). Insecure attachment is characteristic of ED and significantly interferes in the individuation developmental process. Maternal attachment is usually ambivalent; mainly avoidant in anorexics and anxious in bulimics. Anorexic syndrome evokes ancestral adaptive mechanisms to face food scarcity, status achievement and threat of group exclusion. Suppression of reproductive capacity in anorexics, favored by family dynamics, represents a self-sacrifice to obtain the benefit of its members through genetic altruism. Feminine intrasexual competence is related to nubile features in order to attract and retain high quality and long-term partners. Therefore, from an evolutionary perspective, ED symptomatology may be described as a self-destructive adaptive state of lack of control, in response to a particular genetic phenotype plasticity, environmental factors and cognitive processes.

Epigenética: definición, bases moleculares e implicaciones en la salud y en la evolución humana / Epigenetics: definition, molecular bases and implications in human health and evolution / Epigenética: definição, bases moleculares e implicações na saúde e na evolução humana

La Epigenética se refiere a los cambios heredables en el ADN e histonas que no implican altera ciones en la secuencia de nucleótidos y modifican la estructura y condensación de la cromatina por lo que afectan la expresión génica y el fenotipo. Las modificaciones epigenéticas son metilación del ADN y modificaciones de histonas. Objetivo: hacer una revisión de la literatura sobre e concepto de epigenética y su impacto en la salud. Materiales y métodos: se realizó una revisión de la bibliografía sobre el concepto de epigenética, sus bases biológicas, el impacto sobre la salud y la enfermedad y su relación con la evolución. Resultados: los mecanismos epigenéticos ha cobrado cada vez más importancia debido a la creciente asociación con enfermedades compleja y comunes, así como por su impacto en la salud de generaciones futuras y en la evolución humana. Conclusiones: la Epigenética tiene un claro impacto en la salud del individuo, en la de su descendencia y en la evolución de la especie humana.

Epigenetics refers to inheritable changes in DNA and histones that do not involve changes in the sequence of nucleotides and that modifies structure and chromatin condensation, thus affecting gene expression and phenotype. Epigenetic modifications are DNA methylation and histone modifications. Objective: A review of the literature on the concept of Epigenetics and its impact on health. Materials and methods: A review of the literature was performed on the concept of epigenetics, its biological basis, the impact on health and disease and its relation to evolution. Results: Epigenetic mechanisms have become increasingly important because of the growing association with common complex diseases as well as its impact on health of future generations and in human evolution. Conclusions: Epigenetics has a clear impact on the health of individuals in their offspring and with the evolution of the human species.

A Epigenética refere-se às mudanças hereditárias no ADN e histonas que não implicam alterações nas sequencia de nucleotídeos e modificam a estrutura e condensação da cromatina, pelo que afetam a expressão gênica e o fenótipo. As modificações epigenéticas são metilação do ADN e modificações de histonas. Objetivo: fazer uma revisão da literatura sobre o conceito de epigenética e seu impacto na saúde. Materiais e métodos: realizou-se uma revisão da bibliografia sobre o conceito de epigenética, suas bases biológicas, o impacto sobre a saúde e a doença e sua relação com a evolução. Resultados: os mecanismos epigenéticos têm adquirido cada vez mais importância devido à crescente associação com doenças complexas e comunes, assim como por seu impacto na saúde de gerações futuras e na evolução humana. Conclusões: a Epigenética tem um impacto evidente na saúde do individuo, na sua descendência e na evolução da espécie humana.